مروری بر زمینه‌ها، انواع و پیامدهای مهاجرت بین المللی زنان

خواجه نوری, بیژن; شریفی, علی

doi:10.30495/jzvj.2022.22856.3019

انتقال سامانه مجلات به سامانه سند (سکوی نشر دانش)

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	مروری بر زمینه‌ها، انواع و پیامدهای مهاجرت بین المللی زنان
فصلنامه زن و جامعه
دوره 13، شماره 49، اردیبهشت 1401، صفحه 53-74 اصل مقاله (1.14 M)
نوع مقاله: مقاله مروری
شناسه دیجیتال (DOI): 10.30495/jzvj.2022.22856.3019
نویسندگان
بیژن خواجه نوری¹؛ علی شریفی^* ²
¹عضو هیات علمی دانشگاه شیراز
²علوم اجتماعی داشگاه شیراز
تاریخ دریافت: 09 مهر 1398، تاریخ بازنگری: 24 آذر 1400، تاریخ پذیرش: 10 اردیبهشت 1401
چکیده
امروزه زنان از نظر جمعیتی تقریبا نیمی از جریان‌های مهاجرتی را در سطح بین‌المللی تشکیل می‌دهند. این هم‌وزنی مهاجرت‌های مردان و زنان، یکی از مهم‌ترین تحولات مهاجرتی اخیر بوده است که از دهه‌ی 1970 میلادی توجه محققان حوزه مهاجرت را به خود جلب کرده است. مطالعه حاضر به بررسی روندها، انواع، و ویژگی‌های مهاجرت‌های بین‌المللی زنان، مطابق با آخرین آمارها و گزارش‌های سازمان‌های جهانی پرداخته است. نتایج مطالعه نشان داد که این روند را می‌توان در بسترهای جهانی شدن و جنسیت مورد مداقه قرارد داد؛ به‌ویژه جهانی‌شدن تقاضا برای نیروی کار زنانه‌ی ارزان و فرمان‌بر را به طور چشمگیری افزایش داده است. زنان ممکن است آزادانه و یا به اجبار دست به مهاجرت بزنند. همچنین برای زنان، مهاجرت‌ می‌تواند به انگیزه‌ی رهایی از تبعیض‌ها و هنجارهای جنسیتی منقاد‌کننده‌ی زنان باشد. امکان ایجاد فرصت‌های برابر برای زنان در جابجایی‌های بین‌المللی و کسب فرصت‌های اقتصادی و اجتماعی مقتضی به دور از کلیشه‌های جنسیتی را می‌توان به عنوان مصداقی از سطوح توسعه در نظر آورد؛ گرچه زنان در این فرایند ممکن است با چالش‌هایی نیز مواجه شوند. از یکسو تقسیم جنسیتی کار در اقتصاد جهانی و از سوی دیگر کلیشه‌های جنسیتی، منافع مهاجرتی زنان را به نسبت مردان بیشتر در معرض خطر قرار می‌دهند. مهاجران زن غیر قانونی و همچنین زنان مهاجر غیر ماهر، بیشتر در معرض چنین مخاطراتی قرار دارند.
کلیدواژه‌ها
زنان؛ مهاجرت بین‌المللی؛ جهانی شدن؛ جنسیت
عنوان مقاله [English]
An Overview of the Contexts, Types and Consequences of Women's International Migration
نویسندگان [English]
Bijan Khaje Nouri¹؛ Ali Sharifi²
¹Associate Professor in Sociology at Shiraz university
²Shiraz University
چکیده [English]
Today, Women comprise about half of the international migration flows. This weighting of men’s and women’s migration has been one of the most important recent migration developments that has attracted the attention of immigration researchers since the 1970s. The present study has investigated the trends, types, and characteristics of international migration of women in accordance with the latest statics and reports of international organizations. The results showed that this trend can be studied in the context of globalization and gender. In particular, globalization has greatly increased the demand for cheap and obedient female labor. Women may migrate freely or under duress. Also for women, the motivation for immigration can be freedom from discrimination and gender norms. Creating equal opportunities for women in international mobility and obtaining appropriate economic and social opportunities without gender stereotypes can be seen as an example of development. Although women in this process may also have to face challenges. On the one hand, the gender division of labor in the global economy, and on the other, gender stereotypes, put the immigrant interests of women in greater risk than men. Illegal female immigrants as well as unskilled immigrant women are more likely to be affected.
کلیدواژه‌ها [English]
Women, International Migration, Globalization, Gender

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World Bank Publications, 2016. 53- UNCTAD, “Impact of Access to Financial Services, Including by Highlighting Remittances on Development: Economic Empowerment of Women and Youth.” 2014, [Online]. Available: https://unctad.org/meetings/en/SessionalDocuments/ciem6d2_en.pdf. 54- N. Hildebrandt, D. J. McKenzie, G. Esquivel, and E. Schargrodsky, “The effects of migration on child health in Mexico [with comments],” Economia, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 257–289, 2005. 55- C. Ambrosius and A. Cuecuecha, “Are Remittances a Substitute for Credit? Carrying the Financial Burden of Health Shocks in National and Transnational Households,” World Dev., vol. 46, pp. 143–152, 2013, doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.01.032. 56- M. Le Goff, “Feminization of migration and trends in remittances,” 2016. 57- https://www.google.com/search? q=%E2%80%9CRemittances+and+Financial+Inclusion%2C%E2%80%9D+2018.&sxsrf=APq-WBuDSRkDoSM2-Acsj_YFDj24lR4BQw%3A1647110866817&ei=0uosYoegMaH97_UPjNeAgAs&ved=0ahUKEwiH0fyQnsH2AhWh_rsIHYwrALAQ4dUDCA4&oq=%E2%80%9CRemittances+and+Financial+Inclusion%2C%E2%80%9D+2018.&gs_lcp=Cgdnd3Mtd2l6EAwyBwgjEK4CECc6BwgjEOoCECdKBAhBGABKBAhGGABQwA9YwA9gxRtoAnABeACAAYUCiAGFApIBAzItMZgBAKABAaABArABCsABAQ&sclient=gws-wiz 58- P. Levitt, “Social remittances: Migration driven local-level forms of cultural diffusion,” Int. Migr. Rev., vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 926–948, 1998. 59- S. Jolly, H. Reeves, and N. Piper, “Gender and migration: Overview report,” Institute of Development studies, 2005. 60- V. Bashi, Survival of the knitted: Immigrant social networks in a stratified world. Stanford University Press, 2007. 61- R. P. C. Brown, J. Connell, and E. V Jimenez‐Soto, “Migrants’ remittances, poverty and social protection in the South Pacific: Fiji and Tonga,” Popul. Space Place, vol. 20, no. 5, pp. 434–454, 2014. 62- I. O. for Migration, World Migration 2005 Costs and Benefits of International Migration, vol. 3. Academic Foundation, 2006. 63- S. Pedraza, “Women and migration: The social consequences of gender,” Annu. Rev. Sociol., vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 303–325, 1991. 64- F. A. Vianello, “Ukrainian migrant women’s social remittances: Contents and effects on families left behind,” Migr. Lett., vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 91–100, 2013. 65- D. C. Vecchio, Merchants, midwives, and laboring women: Italian migrants in urban America, vol. 43. University of Illinois Press, 2006. 66- T. Jacka, “Approaches to women and development in rural China,” J. Contemp. China, vol. 15, no. 49, pp. 585–602, 2006. 67- A. Andrews and N. Shahrokni, “Patriarchal Accommodations: Women’s Mobility and Policies of Gender Difference from Urban Iran to Migrant Mexico,” J. Contemp. Ethnogr., vol. 43, no. 2, pp. 148–175, 2014, doi: 10.1177/0891241613516628. 68- A. M. Gaetano, Out to work. University of Hawaii Press, 2015. 69- G. Shokouh, Afyoni & Asemeh, “Analysis of women’s life experience of migration (Study of Women Abroad Migration),” Soc. Sci. Q., vol. 26, no. 87, pp. 155–178, 2019. 70- M. Elo, R. Aman, and F. Täube, “Female migrants and brain waste–A conceptual challenge with societal implications,” Int. Migr., 2020. 71- G. Bjerén, Migration and reproduction. 1997. 72- S. Chant, Gender and migration in developing countries. Belhaven Press, 1992. 73- S. Chant, “From ‘Woman‐Blind’to ‘Man‐Kind’Should Men Have More Space in Gender and Development?,” IDS Bull., vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 7–17, 2000. 1- K. M. Donato and D. Gabaccia, Gender and international migration. Russell Sage Foundation, 2015. 2- R. Sadeghi and L. Valadvand, “Gender and Migration: A Sociological Analysis of Gender Differentials in Internal Migration in Iran,” Two Q. J. Contemp. Sociol. Res., vol. 4, no. 7, pp. 55–78, 2015. 3- E. A. Parrado and C. A. Flippen, “Migration and gender among Mexican women,” Am. Sociol. Rev., vol. 70, no. 4, pp. 606–632, 2005. 4- V. Ortiz, “Migration and marriage among Puerto Rican women,” Int. Migr. Rev., vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 460–484, 1996. 5- https://www.oecd.org/dev/development-gender/SIGI%20and%20Female%20Migration_final.pdf 6- L. S. Kunwar, “International Migration Level and Trends,” Patan Pragya, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 91–100, 2020. 7- V. N. Parrillo, Encyclopedia of social problems. Sage Publications, 2008. 8- M. Moshfegh and M. Khazai, “A Study on Characteristics and Determinants of Independent woman migrants in Iran,” Women’s Strateg. Stud., vol. 17, no. 67 (spring 2015), pp. 85–124, 2015. 9- S. F. Martin, “Consultative meeting on migration and mobility and how this movement affects women: report of the consultative meeting, Malmö Sweden, 2 to 4 December 2003 Report of the consultative meeting on migration and mobility and how this movement affects women,” Georgetown University, 2004. 10- S. Rafea, H. & Madmani, “A Comparative Study of Perspectives on Development and Social Welfare in Iran,.” 11- G. H. R. LATIFI and T. DAVOODVANDI, “THE EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT WITH EMPHASIS ON SOCIAL CIRCUMSTANCES OF IRAN,” Soc. Dev. Welf. Plan., vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 179–202, 2010. 12- F. Ross-Sheriff, “Global migration and gender,” Affilia, vol. 26, no. 3. Sage Publications Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA, pp. 233–238, 2011. 13- J. Cortina, P. Taran, E. Elie, and L. Raphael, “Migration and Youth: Challenges and Opportunities. Global Migration Group, United Nations Children’s Fund.” 2014. 14- A. Fleury, “Understanding women and migration: A literature review,” Washington, DC, vol. file:///C:, p. 55, 2016. 15- U. Nations, “World migration report 2020,” 2020. 16- P. S. C. San, “The Female Face of Migration. Background paper,” Caritas Internationalis, 2010. https://www.caritas.org/what-we-do/migration/female-face-of-migration/ (accessed Feb. 07, 2022). 17- N. Popova and M. H. Özel, ILO global estimates on international migrant workers: results and methodology. International Labour Office, 2018. 18- L. B. Landau and E. T. Achiume, “International migration report 2015: Highlights,” Dev. Change, vol. 48, no. 5, pp. 1182–1195, 2017. 19- https://www.migrationdataportal.org/ themes/remittances%20(accessed%20Feb.%2007,%202022) 20- W. B. Group and UNHCR., Forced displacement and mixed migration in the Horn of Africa. 2015. 21- A. Vitorino, Migration Initiatives 2020. 2019. 22- https://www.migrationdataportal.org/ themes/labour-migration%20(accessed%20Feb.%2007,%202022). 23- H. Mahmoudian, H. B. Razeghi-Nasrabad, and M. R. Karegar Shooraki, “Skilled Migrant Women in Tehran,” Women Dev. Polit., vol. 7, no. 4, 2009. 24- J. Treas, J. Scott, and M. Richards, The Wiley Blackwell companion to the sociology of families. John Wiley & Sons, 2017. 25- N. Oishi, Women in motion: Globalization, state policies, and labor migration in Asia. Stanford University Press, 2005. 26- G. Gereffi and M. Korzeniewicz, Commodity chains and global capitalism, no. 149. ABC-CLIO, 1994. 27- T. J. Sturgeon, “How do we define value chains and production networks?,” IDS Bull., vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 9–18, 2001. 28- J. C. Nash and M. P. Fernández-Kelly, Women, men, and the international division of labor. Suny Press, 1983. 29- H. Jarvis, J. Cloke, and P. Kantor, Cities and gender. Routledge, 2009. 30- H. Ward and S. O. Aral, “Globalisation, the sex industry, and health,” Sex. Transm. Infect., vol. 82, no. 5, pp. 345–347, 2006. 31- M. Arabestani, Desire to leave, emigration in the Iranian intersubjectivity. 2018. 32- United Nations University and Institute on Globalization Culture and Mobility, “Practicing Diversity - Second Mayoral Forum on Mobility, Migration and Development,” 2015. [Online]. Available: file:///C:/Users/ali/Downloads/Documents/UNU-GCMPolicyBriefonPracticingDiversity.pdf. 33- F. Farah, “An Expert group meeting on female migrants: What is so special about it?,” Female Migrants Bridg. Gaps Throughout Life Cycle, p. 23, 2006. 34- C. N. Penson, “Feminization of Migration,” 2007. 35- A. Seifi, “The causes and the consequences of the feminizationof international migration in the light of human security with an emphasis on international law: challenges and solutions,” Women Stud., vol. 8, no. 19, pp. 85–120, 2017. 36- L. L. Lim, The sex sector: The economic and social bases of prostitution in Southeast Asia. International Labour Organization, 1998. 37- U. (2016), “Forced Displacement in 2015.–UNHCR The UN Refugee Agency,” 2016. 38- G. Chammartin, “The feminization of international migration,” Int. Migr. Program. Int. Labour Organ., pp. 37–40, 2002. 39- A. De Dios, “Quilted Sightings: A Women and Gender Studies Reader,” Women Gend. Institute, Miriam Coll. Quezon City, Philipp., 2008. 40- C. Lipszyc, “The feminization of migration: Dreams and realities of migrant women in four Latin American countries,” URBAL, Reclaiming the Streets, Montevideo, Uruguay, pp. 13–15, 2004. 41- H. Jayaweera, “Migrant workers in the UK Healthcare Sector,” 2015. - T. O’Neil, A. Fleury, and M. Foresti, “Women on the move: Migration, gender equality and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,” Overseas Development Institute, 2016. [Online]. Available: https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/resource-documents/10731.pdfhttps://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/resource-documents/10731.pdf. 42- J. Ghosh, “Migration and Gender Empowerment: Recent Trends and Emerging Issues. UNDP Human Development Report Office, New York.” 2009. 43- V. Ryklina, “Marriage on Export,” Newsweek, vol. 19, no. 58, pp. 11–17, 2004. 44- B. L. Lowell and A. Findlay, “Migration of highly skilled persons from developing countries: impact and policy responses,” Int. Migr. Pap., vol. 44, no. 25, pp. 1–45, 2001. 45- S. K. Tayebi, M. Emadzadeh, and H. Rostami, “The effect of brain drain on economic growth of developing countries,” Q. J. Econ. Growth Dev. Res., vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 71–94, 2011. 46- C. Internationalis, “The Female Face of Migration. Background paper,” Retrieved May, 2010. . 47- M. Beiser, “The health of immigrants and refugees in Canada,” Can. J. Public Heal., vol. 96, no. 2, pp. S30–S44, 2005. 48- C. Internationalis, “The female face of migration. Advocacy and best practices for women who migrate and the families they leave behind,” Vatican City State Caritas Int., 2012. 49- M. Potocky, “6. Social Work Practice with Victims of Transnational Human Trafficking,” Columbia University Press, 2010. 50- R. Coomaraswamy, “Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women, its Causes and Consequences, Ms. Radhika Coomaraswamy: Addendum: Report on the Mission of Special Rapporteur to South Africa on the Issue of Rape in the Community,” 1998. [Online]. Available: http://www.awf.or.jp/pdf/h0015.pdf. 51- R. D. Knomad, “Migration and Remittances: Recent Developments and Outlook,” Migr. Dev. Br., vol. 31, 2019. 52- D. Ratha, C. Eigen-Zucchi, and S. Plaza, Migration and remittances Factbook 2016. World Bank Publications, 2016. 53- UNCTAD, “Impact of Access to Financial Services, Including by Highlighting Remittances on Development: Economic Empowerment of Women and Youth.” 2014, [Online]. Available: https://unctad.org/meetings/en/SessionalDocuments/ciem6d2_en.pdf. 54- N. Hildebrandt, D. J. McKenzie, G. Esquivel, and E. Schargrodsky, “The effects of migration on child health in Mexico [with comments],” Economia, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 257–289, 2005. 55- C. Ambrosius and A. Cuecuecha, “Are Remittances a Substitute for Credit? Carrying the Financial Burden of Health Shocks in National and Transnational Households,” World Dev., vol. 46, pp. 143–152, 2013, doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.01.032. 56- M. Le Goff, “Feminization of migration and trends in remittances,” 2016. 57- https://www.google.com/search? q=%E2%80%9CRemittances+and+Financial+Inclusion%2C%E2%80%9D+2018.&sxsrf=APq-WBuDSRkDoSM2-Acsj_YFDj24lR4BQw%3A1647110866817&ei=0uosYoegMaH97_UPjNeAgAs&ved=0ahUKEwiH0fyQnsH2AhWh_rsIHYwrALAQ4dUDCA4&oq=%E2%80%9CRemittances+and+Financial+Inclusion%2C%E2%80%9D+2018.&gs_lcp=Cgdnd3Mtd2l6EAwyBwgjEK4CECc6BwgjEOoCECdKBAhBGABKBAhGGABQwA9YwA9gxRtoAnABeACAAYUCiAGFApIBAzItMZgBAKABAaABArABCsABAQ&sclient=gws-wiz 58- P. Levitt, “Social remittances: Migration driven local-level forms of cultural diffusion,” Int. Migr. Rev., vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 926–948, 1998. 59- S. Jolly, H. Reeves, and N. Piper, “Gender and migration: Overview report,” Institute of Development studies, 2005. 60- V. Bashi, Survival of the knitted: Immigrant social networks in a stratified world. Stanford University Press, 2007. 61- R. P. C. Brown, J. Connell, and E. V Jimenez‐Soto, “Migrants’ remittances, poverty and social protection in the South Pacific: Fiji and Tonga,” Popul. Space Place, vol. 20, no. 5, pp. 434–454, 2014. 62- I. O. for Migration, World Migration 2005 Costs and Benefits of International Migration, vol. 3. Academic Foundation, 2006. 63- S. Pedraza, “Women and migration: The social consequences of gender,” Annu. Rev. Sociol., vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 303–325, 1991. 64- F. A. Vianello, “Ukrainian migrant women’s social remittances: Contents and effects on families left behind,” Migr. Lett., vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 91–100, 2013. 65- D. C. Vecchio, Merchants, midwives, and laboring women: Italian migrants in urban America, vol. 43. University of Illinois Press, 2006. 66- T. Jacka, “Approaches to women and development in rural China,” J. Contemp. China, vol. 15, no. 49, pp. 585–602, 2006. 67- A. Andrews and N. Shahrokni, “Patriarchal Accommodations: Women’s Mobility and Policies of Gender Difference from Urban Iran to Migrant Mexico,” J. Contemp. Ethnogr., vol. 43, no. 2, pp. 148–175, 2014, doi: 10.1177/0891241613516628. 68- A. M. Gaetano, Out to work. University of Hawaii Press, 2015. 69- G. Shokouh, Afyoni & Asemeh, “Analysis of women’s life experience of migration (Study of Women Abroad Migration),” Soc. Sci. Q., vol. 26, no. 87, pp. 155–178, 2019. 70- M. Elo, R. Aman, and F. Täube, “Female migrants and brain waste–A conceptual challenge with societal implications,” Int. Migr., 2020. 71- G. Bjerén, Migration and reproduction. 1997. 72- S. Chant, Gender and migration in developing countries. Belhaven Press, 1992. 73- S. Chant, “From ‘Woman‐Blind’to ‘Man‐Kind’Should Men Have More Space in Gender and Development?,” IDS Bull., vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 7–17, 2000.
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مروری بر زمینه‌ها، انواع و پیامدهای مهاجرت بین المللی زنان

2- R. Sadeghi and L. Valadvand, “Gender and Migration: A Sociological Analysis of Gender Differentials in Internal Migration in Iran,” Two Q. J. Contemp. Sociol. Res., vol. 4, no. 7, pp. 55–78, 2015.

3- E. A. Parrado and C. A. Flippen, “Migration and gender among Mexican women,” Am. Sociol. Rev., vol. 70, no. 4, pp. 606–632, 2005.

4- V. Ortiz, “Migration and marriage among Puerto Rican women,” Int. Migr. Rev., vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 460–484, 1996.

5- https://www.oecd.org/dev/development-gender/SIGI%20and%20Female%20Migration_final.pdf

6- L. S. Kunwar, “International Migration Level and Trends,” Patan Pragya, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 91–100, 2020.

7- V. N. Parrillo, Encyclopedia of social problems. Sage Publications, 2008.

8- M. Moshfegh and M. Khazai, “A Study on Characteristics and Determinants of Independent woman migrants in Iran,” Women’s Strateg. Stud., vol. 17, no. 67 (spring 2015), pp. 85–124, 2015.

10- S. Rafea, H. & Madmani, “A Comparative Study of Perspectives on Development and Social Welfare in Iran,.”

11- G. H. R. LATIFI and T. DAVOODVANDI, “THE EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT WITH EMPHASIS ON SOCIAL CIRCUMSTANCES OF IRAN,” Soc. Dev. Welf. Plan., vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 179–202, 2010.

12- F. Ross-Sheriff, “Global migration and gender,” Affilia, vol. 26, no. 3. Sage Publications Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA, pp. 233–238, 2011.

13- J. Cortina, P. Taran, E. Elie, and L. Raphael, “Migration and Youth: Challenges and Opportunities. Global Migration Group, United Nations Children’s Fund.” 2014.

14- A. Fleury, “Understanding women and migration: A literature review,” Washington, DC, vol. file:///C:, p. 55, 2016.

15- U. Nations, “World migration report 2020,” 2020.

16- P. S. C. San, “The Female Face of Migration. Background paper,” Caritas Internationalis, 2010. https://www.caritas.org/what-we-do/migration/female-face-of-migration/ (accessed Feb. 07, 2022).

17- N. Popova and M. H. Özel, ILO global estimates on international migrant workers: results and methodology. International Labour Office, 2018.

18- L. B. Landau and E. T. Achiume, “International migration report 2015: Highlights,” Dev. Change, vol. 48, no. 5, pp. 1182–1195, 2017.

19- https://www.migrationdataportal.org/ themes/remittances%20(accessed%20Feb.%2007,%202022)

20- W. B. Group and UNHCR., Forced displacement and mixed migration in the Horn of Africa. 2015.

21- A. Vitorino, Migration Initiatives 2020. 2019.

22- https://www.migrationdataportal.org/ themes/labour-migration%20(accessed%20Feb.%2007,%202022).

23- H. Mahmoudian, H. B. Razeghi-Nasrabad, and M. R. Karegar Shooraki, “Skilled Migrant Women in Tehran,” Women Dev. Polit., vol. 7, no. 4, 2009.

24- J. Treas, J. Scott, and M. Richards, The Wiley Blackwell companion to the sociology of families. John Wiley & Sons, 2017.

25- N. Oishi, Women in motion: Globalization, state policies, and labor migration in Asia. Stanford University Press, 2005.

26- G. Gereffi and M. Korzeniewicz, Commodity chains and global capitalism, no. 149. ABC-CLIO, 1994.

27- T. J. Sturgeon, “How do we define value chains and production networks?,” IDS Bull., vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 9–18, 2001.

28- J. C. Nash and M. P. Fernández-Kelly, Women, men, and the international division of labor. Suny Press, 1983.

29- H. Jarvis, J. Cloke, and P. Kantor, Cities and gender. Routledge, 2009.

30- H. Ward and S. O. Aral, “Globalisation, the sex industry, and health,” Sex. Transm. Infect., vol. 82, no. 5, pp. 345–347, 2006.

31- M. Arabestani, Desire to leave, emigration in the Iranian intersubjectivity. 2018.

32- United Nations University and Institute on Globalization Culture and Mobility, “Practicing Diversity - Second Mayoral Forum on Mobility, Migration and Development,” 2015. [Online]. Available: file:///C:/Users/ali/Downloads/Documents/UNU-GCMPolicyBriefonPracticingDiversity.pdf.

33- F. Farah, “An Expert group meeting on female migrants: What is so special about it?,” Female Migrants Bridg. Gaps Throughout Life Cycle, p. 23, 2006.

34- C. N. Penson, “Feminization of Migration,” 2007.

35- A. Seifi, “The causes and the consequences of the feminizationof international migration in the light of human security with an emphasis on international law: challenges and solutions,” Women Stud., vol. 8, no. 19, pp. 85–120, 2017.

36- L. L. Lim, The sex sector: The economic and social bases of prostitution in Southeast Asia. International Labour Organization, 1998.

37- U. (2016), “Forced Displacement in 2015.–UNHCR The UN Refugee Agency,” 2016.

38- G. Chammartin, “The feminization of international migration,” Int. Migr. Program. Int. Labour Organ., pp. 37–40, 2002.

39- A. De Dios, “Quilted Sightings: A Women and Gender Studies Reader,” Women Gend. Institute, Miriam Coll. Quezon City, Philipp., 2008.

40- C. Lipszyc, “The feminization of migration: Dreams and realities of migrant women in four Latin American countries,” URBAL, Reclaiming the Streets, Montevideo, Uruguay, pp. 13–15, 2004.

41- H. Jayaweera, “Migrant workers in the UK Healthcare Sector,” 2015.

42- J. Ghosh, “Migration and Gender Empowerment: Recent Trends and Emerging Issues. UNDP Human Development Report Office, New York.” 2009.

43- V. Ryklina, “Marriage on Export,” Newsweek, vol. 19, no. 58, pp. 11–17, 2004.

44- B. L. Lowell and A. Findlay, “Migration of highly skilled persons from developing countries: impact and policy responses,” Int. Migr. Pap., vol. 44, no. 25, pp. 1–45, 2001.

45- S. K. Tayebi, M. Emadzadeh, and H. Rostami, “The effect of brain drain on economic growth of developing countries,” Q. J. Econ. Growth Dev. Res., vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 71–94, 2011.

46- C. Internationalis, “The Female Face of Migration. Background paper,” Retrieved May, 2010. .

47- M. Beiser, “The health of immigrants and refugees in Canada,” Can. J. Public Heal., vol. 96, no. 2, pp. S30–S44, 2005.

48- C. Internationalis, “The female face of migration. Advocacy and best practices for women who migrate and the families they leave behind,” Vatican City State Caritas Int., 2012.

49- M. Potocky, “6. Social Work Practice with Victims of Transnational Human Trafficking,” Columbia University Press, 2010.

51- R. D. Knomad, “Migration and Remittances: Recent Developments and Outlook,” Migr. Dev. Br., vol. 31, 2019.

52- D. Ratha, C. Eigen-Zucchi, and S. Plaza, Migration and remittances Factbook 2016. World Bank Publications, 2016.

53- UNCTAD, “Impact of Access to Financial Services, Including by Highlighting Remittances on Development: Economic Empowerment of Women and Youth.” 2014, [Online]. Available: https://unctad.org/meetings/en/SessionalDocuments/ciem6d2_en.pdf.

54- N. Hildebrandt, D. J. McKenzie, G. Esquivel, and E. Schargrodsky, “The effects of migration on child health in Mexico [with comments],” Economia, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 257–289, 2005.

55- C. Ambrosius and A. Cuecuecha, “Are Remittances a Substitute for Credit? Carrying the Financial Burden of Health Shocks in National and Transnational Households,” World Dev., vol. 46, pp. 143–152, 2013, doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.01.032.

56- M. Le Goff, “Feminization of migration and trends in remittances,” 2016.

58- P. Levitt, “Social remittances: Migration driven local-level forms of cultural diffusion,” Int. Migr. Rev., vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 926–948, 1998.

59- S. Jolly, H. Reeves, and N. Piper, “Gender and migration: Overview report,” Institute of Development studies, 2005.

60- V. Bashi, Survival of the knitted: Immigrant social networks in a stratified world. Stanford University Press, 2007.

61- R. P. C. Brown, J. Connell, and E. V Jimenez‐Soto, “Migrants’ remittances, poverty and social protection in the South Pacific: Fiji and Tonga,” Popul. Space Place, vol. 20, no. 5, pp. 434–454, 2014.

62- I. O. for Migration, World Migration 2005 Costs and Benefits of International Migration, vol. 3. Academic Foundation, 2006.

63- S. Pedraza, “Women and migration: The social consequences of gender,” Annu. Rev. Sociol., vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 303–325, 1991.

64- F. A. Vianello, “Ukrainian migrant women’s social remittances: Contents and effects on families left behind,” Migr. Lett., vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 91–100, 2013.

65- D. C. Vecchio, Merchants, midwives, and laboring women: Italian migrants in urban America, vol. 43. University of Illinois Press, 2006.

66- T. Jacka, “Approaches to women and development in rural China,” J. Contemp. China, vol. 15, no. 49, pp. 585–602, 2006.

67- A. Andrews and N. Shahrokni, “Patriarchal Accommodations: Women’s Mobility and Policies of Gender Difference from Urban Iran to Migrant Mexico,” J. Contemp. Ethnogr., vol. 43, no. 2, pp. 148–175, 2014, doi: 10.1177/0891241613516628.

68- A. M. Gaetano, Out to work. University of Hawaii Press, 2015.

69- G. Shokouh, Afyoni & Asemeh, “Analysis of women’s life experience of migration (Study of Women Abroad Migration),” Soc. Sci. Q., vol. 26, no. 87, pp. 155–178, 2019.

70- M. Elo, R. Aman, and F. Täube, “Female migrants and brain waste–A conceptual challenge with societal implications,” Int. Migr., 2020.

71- G. Bjerén, Migration and reproduction. 1997.

72- S. Chant, Gender and migration in developing countries. Belhaven Press, 1992.

73- S. Chant, “From ‘Woman‐Blind’to ‘Man‐Kind’Should Men Have More Space in Gender and Development?,” IDS Bull., vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 7–17, 2000.

2- R. Sadeghi and L. Valadvand, “Gender and Migration: A Sociological Analysis of Gender Differentials in Internal Migration in Iran,” Two Q. J. Contemp. Sociol. Res., vol. 4, no. 7, pp. 55–78, 2015.

3- E. A. Parrado and C. A. Flippen, “Migration and gender among Mexican women,” Am. Sociol. Rev., vol. 70, no. 4, pp. 606–632, 2005.

4- V. Ortiz, “Migration and marriage among Puerto Rican women,” Int. Migr. Rev., vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 460–484, 1996.

5- https://www.oecd.org/dev/development-gender/SIGI%20and%20Female%20Migration_final.pdf

6- L. S. Kunwar, “International Migration Level and Trends,” Patan Pragya, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 91–100, 2020.

7- V. N. Parrillo, Encyclopedia of social problems. Sage Publications, 2008.

8- M. Moshfegh and M. Khazai, “A Study on Characteristics and Determinants of Independent woman migrants in Iran,” Women’s Strateg. Stud., vol. 17, no. 67 (spring 2015), pp. 85–124, 2015.